Using data from 669 secondary school students, this Dutch study identifies five distinct engagement profiles based on behavioural, cognitive and intellectual engagement.
It demonstrates that these profiles are not interchangeable — a student can be intellectually curious yet behaviourally disengaged, or hardworking yet intellectually switched off. Critically, students who were highly disengaged behaviourally and cognitively in secondary school struggled most with the transition to university.
The findings make a compelling case for looking beyond surface-level participation when assessing engagement, and for intervening early when students show mismatches between curiosity and effort.
While focused on university preparedness, the profiling framework has direct relevance for understanding the range of engagement patterns present in Years 7–9.